Dation in sperm of dogs [74] and mice [75] has been reported immediately after omega-3 PUFA supplementation. The transcription aspect NF-B functions as a key link among oxidative stress and inflammation [76] and induces various inflammatory genes, including TNF-, IL-1, and IL-6 [77]. ROS can be a key aspect for activation of NF-B [78], which has a adverse impact on ROS formation [79], and overexpression of ROSscavenging enzymes as SOD, GPx, and catalase has been reported to abrogate NF-B induction [78]; TNF–mediated production of NF-B is blunted by CAT [80]. In addition, H2O2 has been demonstrated as a second messenger for the signal-induced activation of NF-B [81] and exposure to oxidants as H2O2 has been shown to stimulate NF-B production [82]. Within this study, the administration of sunflower oil and omega-3 significantly inhibited NF-B and downstream cytokine production. The levels and functional activities of adipokines regulate many signaling systems in the target tissues like the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Apelin and its receptor are expressed in the HPG axis, and apelin has been reported to induce infertility through suppressing reproductive hormones including LH, FSH, and testosterone [83, 84]. Moreover, apelin has anti-inflammatory mTOR Modulator Source effects [85], stimulates antioxidant enzyme expression, and prevents the production of ROS in adipocytes [86]. Therefore, the elevated intratesticular levels of apelin discovered within this study may have partly contributed to sunflower oil- and omega-3-induced μ Opioid Receptor/MOR Agonist list decreases in male reproductive hormones and increases in antioxidant enzyme levels. In distinct, apelin has been demonstrated to augment the degree of serum adiponectin and lessen leptin [87]. Adiponectin acts as a testicular protective mechanism against the effects of proinflammatory mediators on steroidogenesis [88]. The expression of adiponectin and itsreceptors inside the testis has been reported [22, 89, 90]. Leydig cells are the main intratesticular supply of adiponectin [89]. Within the present study, the intratesticular levels of adiponectin have been significantly increased following sunflower oil and omega-3 administration. Each basal and GnRHstimulated LH secretion has been shown to become suppressed by adiponectin [91, 92]. Nevertheless, adiponectin interacts with kisspeptin-expressing neurons and downregulates kisspeptin1 gene expression, decreasing the stimulatory impact of kisspeptin on GnRH neurons [93]. Thus, the elevated intratesticular adiponectin levels observed within this study following sunflower oil and omega-3 administration may well partially contribute towards the inhibition of kisspeptin-GnRHinduced LH production. In rats, a damaging partnership among serum adiponectin and testosterone level has been reported [94]. Irisin, an adipo-myokine engaged in power homeostasis, has various metabolic functions. The injection of exogenous irisin has been shown to boost FSH, LH, and testosterone secretion and ameliorate sperm count and motility in male rats [95]. Moreover, irisin has shown anti-inflammatory effects by means of reducing the activity of NFB and decreasing the levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-, IL-1, and IL-6 [96]. Within the present study, sunflower oil and omega-3 administration substantially improved the intratesticular levels of irisin, which could play a part in testicular protection via its potential antiinflammatory effects. Leptin has been demonstrated to play a direct part in testicular endocrine function and spermatogenesis [97.
