Tic activity. However, in this initial study, native HlgC was unable to be phosphorylated in a manner similar to that of the denatured protein, which largely calls into question whether phosphorylation of HlgC at T246 is a biologically relevant phenomenon. However, it is clear from these studies that regardless of the phosphorylation status, T246 is a critical residue for HlgCB function, as mutation to alanine eliminates toxin activity. Follow-up studies using radiolabeled phosphate in the presence of human PMNs demonstrated that HlgC is indeed phosphorylated in the presence of PMNs and that this phosphorylation occurs at T246 (165). Inhibition of phosphorylation by using protein kinase A inhibitors revealed that HlgCB lytic activity is reduced and that this reduction in activity correlates with reductions in levels of phosphorylation. Thus, it appears that phosphorylation at T246 is a relevant posttranslational modification that Fevipiprant manufacturer confers optimal activity to HlgCB in the presence of target cells. Interestingly, LukS-PV contains the same consensus phosphorylation sequence, while LukE and HlgA do not (102). Thus, phosphorylation is not a conserved mechanism by which leucocidin lytic activity is modulated. It is also worth noting that no additional studies have followed up on phosphorylation as a requirement for the activity of HlgCB or any other leucocidin, so readers are cautioned that the relevance of such activity would seemingly benefit from more rigorous investigation. Recently, studies aimed at identifying the role of S. aureus proteases in secreted protein functions demonstrated that leucocidin abundance is likely to be directly influenced by the proteolytic activity of certain S. aureus strains. Upon the deletion of all secreted protease-encoding genes, Kolar et al. found that the abundances of LukAB/HG, LukSF-PV, LukED (LukE), and gammahemolysin (HlgA) were increased in bacterial PP58 structure supernatants compared to wild-type S. aureus (323). Thus, it is clear that proteases are likely to influence leucocidin stability in some capacity. As these studies were conducted with a protease-null mutant of S. aureus, it is not possible to attribute leucocidin degradation to the activity of one specific protease. Further investigation is needed to provide additional mechanistic detail and support the biological significance of these authors’ findings as they relate to leucocidin activity (323).mmbr.asm.orgMicrobiology and Molecular Biology ReviewsS. aureus LeucocidinsTARGETING OF LEUCOCIDINS AS A THERAPEUTIC MODALITYThe leucocidins potently target both innate and adaptive immune cells to promote immune evasion by S. aureus. Thus, it stands to reason that blocking of leukocytolytic activity may prove beneficial in promoting natural clearance of S. aureus by host immune cells that would have normally been disabled or killed by the toxin. This perspective is not necessarily novel, as in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the potential of Panton-Valentine leucocidin as a therapeutic target was already being realized. Van de Velde et al., Valentine et al., and Gladstone et al. all devised methods by which they demonstrated the immunogenicity of “leucocidin” and the neutralization of leukocytolytic activity by specific antibodies (42, 43, 45, 52, 57, 194, 197, 324). Gladstone and colleagues even conducted a series of studies on both rabbits and humans by using a PVL toxoid (56?9). While there appeared to be some efficacy, as measured by a reduced time to infec.Tic activity. However, in this initial study, native HlgC was unable to be phosphorylated in a manner similar to that of the denatured protein, which largely calls into question whether phosphorylation of HlgC at T246 is a biologically relevant phenomenon. However, it is clear from these studies that regardless of the phosphorylation status, T246 is a critical residue for HlgCB function, as mutation to alanine eliminates toxin activity. Follow-up studies using radiolabeled phosphate in the presence of human PMNs demonstrated that HlgC is indeed phosphorylated in the presence of PMNs and that this phosphorylation occurs at T246 (165). Inhibition of phosphorylation by using protein kinase A inhibitors revealed that HlgCB lytic activity is reduced and that this reduction in activity correlates with reductions in levels of phosphorylation. Thus, it appears that phosphorylation at T246 is a relevant posttranslational modification that confers optimal activity to HlgCB in the presence of target cells. Interestingly, LukS-PV contains the same consensus phosphorylation sequence, while LukE and HlgA do not (102). Thus, phosphorylation is not a conserved mechanism by which leucocidin lytic activity is modulated. It is also worth noting that no additional studies have followed up on phosphorylation as a requirement for the activity of HlgCB or any other leucocidin, so readers are cautioned that the relevance of such activity would seemingly benefit from more rigorous investigation. Recently, studies aimed at identifying the role of S. aureus proteases in secreted protein functions demonstrated that leucocidin abundance is likely to be directly influenced by the proteolytic activity of certain S. aureus strains. Upon the deletion of all secreted protease-encoding genes, Kolar et al. found that the abundances of LukAB/HG, LukSF-PV, LukED (LukE), and gammahemolysin (HlgA) were increased in bacterial supernatants compared to wild-type S. aureus (323). Thus, it is clear that proteases are likely to influence leucocidin stability in some capacity. As these studies were conducted with a protease-null mutant of S. aureus, it is not possible to attribute leucocidin degradation to the activity of one specific protease. Further investigation is needed to provide additional mechanistic detail and support the biological significance of these authors’ findings as they relate to leucocidin activity (323).mmbr.asm.orgMicrobiology and Molecular Biology ReviewsS. aureus LeucocidinsTARGETING OF LEUCOCIDINS AS A THERAPEUTIC MODALITYThe leucocidins potently target both innate and adaptive immune cells to promote immune evasion by S. aureus. Thus, it stands to reason that blocking of leukocytolytic activity may prove beneficial in promoting natural clearance of S. aureus by host immune cells that would have normally been disabled or killed by the toxin. This perspective is not necessarily novel, as in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the potential of Panton-Valentine leucocidin as a therapeutic target was already being realized. Van de Velde et al., Valentine et al., and Gladstone et al. all devised methods by which they demonstrated the immunogenicity of “leucocidin” and the neutralization of leukocytolytic activity by specific antibodies (42, 43, 45, 52, 57, 194, 197, 324). Gladstone and colleagues even conducted a series of studies on both rabbits and humans by using a PVL toxoid (56?9). While there appeared to be some efficacy, as measured by a reduced time to infec.
